Tuesday, December 29, 2015

How to cite our website

How to cite our website

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The Monarda fistulosa, a hardy herbaceous plant, growing spontaneously in Canada, and other parts of North-America. (1)

1. "145 Flower Monarda Fistulosa Crimson Monarda Diandra Monogynia," Flowers: A Botanical Flower Collection, 8 October, 2013, http://flowers.f1cf.com.br/flowers-145.html


Or:

The Monarda fistulosa, a hardy herbaceous plant, growing spontaneously in Canada, and other parts of North-America. (Source: "145 Flower Monarda Fistulosa Crimson Monarda Diandra Monogynia," Flowers: A Botanical Flower Collection, 8 October, 2013, http://flowers.f1cf.com.br/flowers-145.html)



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Monday, December 28, 2015

Safety Warning

Safety Warning

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Sunday, December 27, 2015

Copyright

Copyright

AGRICULTURE FOR
BEGINNERS

BY

CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT

Editor of the American Agriculturist
formerly Director of Agricultural Experiment Station
Kansas State Agricultural College

FRANK LINCOLN STEVENS

Professor of Plant Pathology, University of Illinois
formerly Teacher of Science in High School
Columbus, Ohio

AND

DANIEL HARVEY HILL

Formerly President of the North Carolina College of
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts

REVISED EDITION

GINN AND COMPANY
BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON
ATLANTA · DALLAS · COLUMBUS · SAN FRANCISCO

COPYRIGHT, 1903, 1904, 1914, BY
CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT, FRANK LINCOLN STEVENS
AND DANIEL HARVEY HILL

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

329.7
The Athenæum Press
GINN AND COMPANY · PROPRIETORS · BOSTON · U.S.A.


Getting ready for winter



CONTENTS

CHAPTER I. THE SOIL
SECTIONPAGE
I.Origin of the Soil
II.Tillage of the Soil
III.The Moisture of the Soil
IV.How the Water rises in the Soil
V.Draining the Soil
VI.Improving the Soil
VII.Manuring the Soil
CHAPTER II. THE SOIL AND THE PLANT
VIII.Roots
IX.How the Plant feeds from the Soil
X.Root-Tubercles
XI.The Rotation of Crops
CHAPTER III. THE PLANT
XII.How the Plant feeds from the Air
XIII.The Sap Current
XIV.The Flower and the Seed
XV.Pollination
XVI.Crosses, Hybrids, and Cross-Pollination
XVII.Propagation by Buds
XVIII.Plant Seeding
XIX.Selecting Seed Corn
XX.Weeds
XXI.Seed Purity and Vitality
CHAPTER IV. HOW TO RAISE A FRUIT TREE
XXII.Grafting
XXIII.Budding
XXIV.Planting and Pruning
CHAPTER V. HORTICULTURE
XXV.Market-gardening
XXVI.Flower-gardening
CHAPTER VI. THE DISEASES OF PLANTS
XXVII.The Cause and Nature of Plant Disease
XXVIII.Yeast and Bacteria
XXIX.Prevention of Plant Disease
XXX.Some Special Plant Diseases
CHAPTER VII. ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FIELD INSECTS
XXXI.Insects in General
XXXII.Orchard Insects
XXXIII.Garden and Field Insects
XXXIV.The Cotton-Boll Weevil
CHAPTER VIII. FARM CROPS
XXXV.Cotton
XXXVI.Tobacco
XXXVII.Wheat
XXXVIII.Corn
XXXIX.Peanuts
XL.Sweet Potatoes
XLI.White, Or Irish, Potatoes
XLII.Oats
XLIII.Rye
XLIV.Barley
XLV.Sugar Plants
XLVI.Hemp and Flax
XLVII.Buckwheat
XLVIII.Rice
XLIX.The Timber Crop
L.The Farm Garden
CHAPTER IX. FEED STUFFS
LI.Grasses
LII.Legumes
CHAPTER X. DOMESTIC ANIMALS
LIII.Horses
LIV.Cattle
LV.Sheep
LVI.Swine
LVII.Farm Poultry
LVIII.Bee Culture
LIX.Why we feed Animals
CHAPTER XI. FARM DAIRYING
LX.The Dairy Cow
LXI.Milk, Cream, Churning, and Butter
LXII.How Milk sours
LXIII.The Babcock Milk-Tester
CHAPTER XII. MISCELLANEOUS
LXIV.Growing Feed Stuffs on the Farm
LXV.Farm Tools and Machines
LXVI.Liming the Land
LXVII.Birds
LXVIII.Farming on Dry Land
LXIX.Irrigation
LXX.Life in the Country
APPENDIX
GLOSSARY

This book is now a public domain material.


Saturday, December 26, 2015

To the teacher the textbook on agriculture

To the teacher the textbook on agriculture

TO THE TEACHER

Teachers sometimes shrink from undertaking the teaching of a simple textbook on agriculture because they are not familiar with all the processes of farming. By the same reasoning they might hesitate to teach arithmetic because they do not know calculus or to teach a primary history of the United States because they are not versed in all history. The art of farming is based on the sciences dealing with the growth of plants and animals. This book presents in a simple way these fundamental scientific truths and suggests some practices drawn from them. Hence, even though many teachers may not have plowed or sowed or harvested, such teachers need not be embarrassed in mastering and heartily instructing a class in nature's primary laws.

If teachers realize how much the efficiency, comfort, and happiness of their pupils will be increased throughout their lives from being taught to coöperate with nature and to take advantage of her wonderful laws, they will eagerly begin this study. They will find also that their pupils will be actively interested in these studies bearing on their daily lives, and this interest will be carried over to other subjects. Whenever you can, take the pupils into the field, the garden, the orchard, and the dairy. Teach them to make experiments and to learn by the use of their own eyes and brains. They will, if properly led, astonish you by their efforts and growth.

You will find in the practical exercises many suggestions as to experiments that you can make with your class or with individual members. Do not neglect this first-hand teaching. It will be a delight to your pupils. In many cases it will be best to finish the experiments or observational work first, and later turn to the text to amplify the pupil's knowledge.

Although the book is arranged in logical order, the teacher ought to feel free to teach any topic in the season best suited to its study. Omit any chapter or section that does not bear on your crops or does not deal with conditions in your state.

The United States government and the different state experiment stations publish hundreds of bulletins on agricultural subjects. These are sent without cost, on application. It will be very helpful to get such of these bulletins as bear on the different sections of the book. These will be valuable additions to your school library. The authors would like to give a list of these bulletins bearing on each chapter, but it would soon be out of date, for the bulletins get out of print and are supplanted by newer ones. However, the United States Department of Agriculture prints a monthly list of its publications, and each state experiment station keeps a list of its bulletins. A note to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., or to your own state experiment station will promptly bring you these lists, and from them you can select what you need for your school.

Friday, December 25, 2015

A soil which has never been cultivated

A soil which has never been cultivated

A soil which has never been cultivated



Virgin soil: a soil which has never been cultivated.

Vitality (of seed): vitality is the ability to grow. Seed are of good vitality if a large per cent of them will sprout.

Weathering: the action of moisture, air, frost, etc. upon rocks.

Weed: a plant out of place. A wheat plant in a rose bed or a rose in the wheat field would be regarded as a weed, as would any plant growing in a place in which it is not wanted.

Wilt (of cotton): a disease of cotton in which the whole plant droops or wilts.

Withers: the ridge between the shoulder bones of a horse, at the base of the neck.

Yeast: a preparation containing the yeast plant used to make bread rise, etc.

Thursday, December 24, 2015

Wart-like growth on the roots of legumes

Wart-like growth on the roots of legumes

Wart-like growth on the roots of legumes



Tubercle: a small, wart-like growth on the roots of legumes.

Udder: the milk vessel of a cow.

Utensil: a vessel used for household purposes.

Variety: a particular kind. For example, the Winesap, Bonum, Æsop, etc., are different varieties of apples.

Ventilate: to open to the free passage of air.

Wednesday, December 23, 2015

The middle part of the body of an insect

The middle part of the body of an insect

The middle part of the body of an insect



Thorax: the middle part of the body of an insect. The thorax lies between the abdomen and the head.

Thermometer: an instrument for measuring heat.

Tillage: the act of preparing land for seed, and keeping the ground in a proper state for the growth of crops.

Transplant: a plant grown in a bed with a view to being removed to other soil; a technical term used by gardeners.

Tuesday, December 22, 2015

Stover as used in this book the

Stover as used in this book the

Stover as used in this book the



Stover: as used in this book the word means the dry stalks of corn from which the ears have been removed.

Subsoil: the soil under the topsoil.

Sulphur: a yellowish chemical element; brimstone.

Taproot: the main root of a plant, which runs directly down into the earth to a considerable depth without dividing.

Terrace: a ridge of earth run on a level around a slope or hillside to keep the land from washing.

Monday, December 21, 2015

The part of the flower that bears the pollen

The part of the flower that bears the pollen

The part of the flower that bears the pollen



Stamen: the part of the flower that bears the pollen.

Stamina: endurance.

Sterilize: to destroy all the germs or spores in or on anything. Sterilizing is often done by heat or chemicals.

Stigma: the part of the pistil that receives the pollen.

Stock: the stem or main part of a tree or plant. In grafting or budding the scion is inserted upon the stock.

Sunday, December 20, 2015

A lengthened flower cluster with stalkless flowers

A lengthened flower cluster with stalkless flowers

A lengthened flower cluster with stalkless flowers



Spike: a lengthened flower cluster with stalkless flowers.

Spiracle: an air opening in the body of an insect.

Spore: a small body formed by a fungus to reproduce the fungus. It serves the same use as seeds do for flowering plants.

Spray: to apply a liquid in the form of a very fine mist by the aid of a spraying pump for the purpose of killing fungi or insects.

Saturday, December 19, 2015

A young plant just from the seed

A young plant just from the seed

A young plant just from the seed



Seedling: a young plant just from the seed.

Sepal: one of the leaves in the calyx.

Set: a young plant for propagation.

Silo: a house or pit for packing away green food for winter use so as to exclude air and moisture.

Sire: father.

Smut: a disease of plants, particularly of cereals, which causes the plant or some part of it to become a powdery mass.

Friday, December 18, 2015

A well-arranged succession of different crops on the same land

A well-arranged succession of different crops on the same land

A well-arranged succession of different crops on the same land



Rotation (of crops): a well-arranged succession of different crops on the same land.

Scion: a shoot, sprout, or branch taken to graft or bud upon another plant.

Seed bed: the layer of earth in which seeds are sown.

Seed selection: the careful selection of seed from particular plants with the object of keeping or increasing some desirable quality.

Thursday, December 17, 2015

Pupa an insect in the stage of

Pupa an insect in the stage of

Pupa an insect in the stage of



Pupa: an insect in the stage of its life that comes just before the adult condition.

Purity (of seed): seeds are pure when they contain only one kind of seed and no foreign matter.

Ration: a fixed daily allowance of food for an animal.

Raupenleim: a patented sticky substance used to catch the cankerworm.

Resistant: a plant is resistant to disease when it can ward off attacks of the disease; for example, some varieties of the grape are resistant to the phylloxera.

Wednesday, December 16, 2015

To cause plants or animals to increase in number

To cause plants or animals to increase in number

To cause plants or animals to increase in number



Propagate: to cause plants or animals to increase in number.

Protein: the name of a group of substances containing nitrogen. It is one of the most important of feeding stuffs.

Pruning: trimming or cutting parts that are not needed or that are injurious.

Pulverize: to reduce to a dustlike state.

Tuesday, December 15, 2015

The act of carrying pollen from stamens to pistils

The act of carrying pollen from stamens to pistils

The act of carrying pollen from stamens to pistils



Pollination: the act of carrying pollen from stamens to pistils. It is usually done by the wind or by insects.

Porosity: the state of having small openings or passages between the particles of matter.

Potash: an important part of plant foods. The chief source of potash is kainit, muriate of potash, sulphate of potash, wood ashes, and cotton-hull ashes.

Monday, December 14, 2015

Perennial living through several years All

Perennial living through several years All

Perennial living through several years All



Perennial: living through several years. All trees are perennial.

Petal: a single leaf of the corolla.

Phosphoric acid: an important plant food occurring in bones and rock phosphates.

Pistil: the part of the blossom that contains the immature seeds.

Pollen: the powdery substance borne by the stamen of the flower. It is necessary to seed production.

Sunday, December 13, 2015

Substances made through the growth of plants or animals

Substances made through the growth of plants or animals

Substances made through the growth of plants or animals



Organic matter: substances made through the growth of plants or animals.

Ovary: the particular part of the pistil that bears the immature seed.

Ovipositor: the organ with which an insect deposits its eggs.

Oxygen: a gas present in the air and necessary to breathing.

Particle: any very small part of a body.

Saturday, December 12, 2015

A readily usable form of nitrogen

A readily usable form of nitrogen

A readily usable form of nitrogen



Nitrate: a readily usable form of nitrogen. The most common nitrate is saltpeter.

Nitrogen: a chemical element, one of the most important and most expensive plant foods. It exists in fertilizers, in ammonia, in nitrates, and in organic matter.

Nodule: a little knot or bump.

Nutrient: any substance which nourishes or promotes growth.

Friday, December 11, 2015

A cobwebby growth of fungi on diseased or decaying things

A cobwebby growth of fungi on diseased or decaying things

A cobwebby growth of fungi on diseased or decaying things



Mildew: a cobwebby growth of fungi on diseased or decaying things.

Mold: see mildew.

Mulch: a covering of straw, leaves, or like substances over the roots of plants to protect them from heat, drought, etc., and to preserve moisture.

Nectar: a sweetish substance in blossoms of flowers from which bees make honey.

Thursday, December 10, 2015

An earthy mixture of clay and sand with organic matter

An earthy mixture of clay and sand with organic matter

An earthy mixture of clay and sand with organic matter



Loam: an earthy mixture of clay and sand with organic matter.

Magnesia: an earthy white substance somewhat similar to lime.

Magnify: to make a thing larger in fact or in appearance; to enlarge the appearance of a thing so that the parts may be seen more easily.

Membrane: a thin layer or fold of animal or vegetable matter.

Wednesday, December 9, 2015

To propagate plants by a method similar to cutting

To propagate plants by a method similar to cutting

To propagate plants by a method similar to cutting



Layer: to propagate plants by a method similar to cutting, but differing from cutting in that the young plant takes root before it is separated from the parent plant.

Legume: a plant belonging to the family of the pea, clover, and bean; that is, having a flower of similar structure.

Lichen: a kind of flowerless plant that grows on stones, trees, boards, etc.

Tuesday, December 8, 2015

Insectivorous anything that eats insects

Insectivorous anything that eats insects

Insectivorous anything that eats insects



Insectivorous: anything that eats insects.

Kainit: salts of potash used in making fertilizers.

Kernel: a single seed or grain, as a kernel of corn.

Kerosene emulsion: see Appendix.

Larva (plural larvæ): the young or immature form of an insect.

Larval: belonging to larva.

Monday, December 7, 2015

The result of breeding two different kinds of plants together

The result of breeding two different kinds of plants together

The result of breeding two different kinds of plants together



Hybrid: the result of breeding two different kinds of plants together.

Hydrogen: a chemical element. It is present in water and in all living things.

Individual: a single person, plant, animal, or thing of any kind.

Inoculate: to give a disease by inserting the germ that causes it in a healthy being.

Sunday, December 6, 2015

The resemblance of offspring to parent

The resemblance of offspring to parent

The resemblance of offspring to parent



Heredity: the resemblance of offspring to parent.

Hibernating: to pass the winter in a torpid or inactive state in close quarters.

Hock: the joint in the hind leg of quadrupeds between the leg and the shank. It corresponds to the ankle in man.

Host: the plant upon which a fungus or insect is preying.

Humus: the portion of the soil caused by the decay of animal or vegetable matter.

Saturday, December 5, 2015

A vegetable form of protein found in cereals

A vegetable form of protein found in cereals

A vegetable form of protein found in cereals



Gluten: a vegetable form of protein found in cereals.

Graft: to place a living branch or stem on another living stem so that it may grow there. It insures the growth of the desired kind of plant.

Granule: a little grain.

Gypsum: land plaster.

"Head back": to cut or prune a tree so as to form its head, that is, the place where the main trunk first gives off its branches.

Friday, December 4, 2015

A seed germinates when it begins to grow

A seed germinates when it begins to grow

A seed germinates when it begins to grow



Germinate: to sprout. A seed germinates when it begins to grow.

Girdle: to make a cut or groove around a limb or tree.

Glacier: an immense field or stream of ice formed in the region of constant snow and moving slowly down a slope or valley.

Globule: a small particle of matter shaped like a globe.

Glucose: a kind of sugar very common in plants. The sugar from grapes, honey, etc. is glucose. That from the sugar cane is not.

Thursday, December 3, 2015

A substance used to kill or prevent the growth of fungi

A substance used to kill or prevent the growth of fungi

A substance used to kill or prevent the growth of fungi



Fungicide: a substance used to kill or prevent the growth of fungi; for example, Bordeaux Mixture or copper sulphate.

Fungous: belonging to or caused by fungi.

Fungus (plural fungi): a low kind of plant life lacking in green color. Molds and toadstools are examples.

Germ: that from which anything springs. The term is often applied to any very small organism or living thing, particularly if it causes great effects such as disease, fermentation, etc.

Wednesday, December 2, 2015

By causing it to pass through some substance

By causing it to pass through some substance

By causing it to pass through some substance



Filter: to purify a liquid, as water, by causing it to pass through some substance, as paper, cloth, screens, etc.

Formalin: a forty per cent solution of a chemical known as formaldehyde. Formalin is used to kill fungi, bacteria, etc.

Formula: a recipe for the making of a compound; for example, fertilizer or spraying compounds.

Tuesday, December 1, 2015

Land is said to be fertile when it produces well

Land is said to be fertile when it produces well

Land is said to be fertile when it produces well



Fertility: the state of being fruitful. Land is said to be fertile when it produces well.

Fertilization: the act which follows pollination and enables a flower to produce seed.

Fetlock: the long-haired cushion on the back side of a horse's leg just above the hoof.

Fiber: any fine, slender thread or threadlike substance, as the rootlets of plants or the lint of cotton.

Monday, November 30, 2015

Green foods preserved in a silo

Green foods preserved in a silo

Green foods preserved in a silo



Ensilage: green foods preserved in a silo.

Evaporate: to pass off in vapor, as a fluid often does; to change from a solid or liquid state into vapor, usually by heat.

Exhaustion: the state in which strength, power, and force have been lost. When applied to land, the word means that land has lost its power to produce well.

Fermentation: a chemical change produced by bacteria, yeast, etc. A common example of fermentation is the change of cider into vinegar.

Sunday, November 29, 2015

Digestion the act by which food is

Digestion the act by which food is

Digestion the act by which food is



Digestion: the act by which food is prepared by the juices of the body to be used by the blood.

Dormant: a word used to describe sleeping or resting bodies,—bodies not in a state of activity.

Drainage: the process by which an excess of water is removed from the land by ditches, terraces, or tiles.

Element: a substance that cannot be divided into simpler substances.

Saturday, November 28, 2015

Croup the top of the hips

Croup the top of the hips

Croup the top of the hips



Croup: the top of the hips.

Culture: the art of preparing ground for seed and raising crops by tillage.

Curb disease: a swelling on the back part of the hind leg of a horse just behind the lowest part of the hock joint. It generally causes lameness.

Curculio: a kind of beetle or weevil.

Dendrolene: a patented substance used for catching cankerworms.

Friday, November 27, 2015

Concentrated when applied to food the word

Concentrated when applied to food the word

Concentrated when applied to food the word



Concentrated: when applied to food the word means that it contains much feeding value in small bulk.

Contagious: a disease is said to be contagious when it can be spread or carried from one individual to another.

Cross: the result of breeding two varieties of plant together.

Cross pollination: the pollination of a flower by pollen brought from a flower on some other plant.

Thursday, November 26, 2015

Cereal the name given to grasses that

Cereal the name given to grasses that

Cereal the name given to grasses that



Cereal: the name given to grasses that are raised for the food contained in their seeds, such as corn, wheat, rice.

Cobalt: a poisonous chemical used to kill insects.

Cocoon: the case made by an insect to contain its larva or pupa.

Commercial fertilizer: an enriching plant food bought to improve soil.

Compact: a soil is said to be compact when the particles are closely packed.

Wednesday, November 25, 2015

A chemical often used to kill or prevent the growth of germs

A chemical often used to kill or prevent the growth of germs

A chemical often used to kill or prevent the growth of germs



Carbolic acid: a chemical often used to kill or prevent the growth of germs, bacteria, fungi, etc.

Carbon: a chemical element. Charcoal is nearly pure carbon.

Carbon disulphide: a chemical used to kill insects.

Carbonic acid gas: a gas consisting of carbon and oxygen. It is produced by breathing, and whenever carbon is burned. It is the source of the carbon in plants.

Tuesday, November 24, 2015

The growing layer lying between the wood and the bark

The growing layer lying between the wood and the bark

The growing layer lying between the wood and the bark



Cambium: the growing layer lying between the wood and the bark.

Canon: the shank bone above the fetlock in the fore and hind legs of a horse.

Carbohydrates: carbohydrates are foods free from nitrogen. They make up the largest part of all vegetables. Examples are sugar, starch, and cellulose.

Monday, November 23, 2015

Bud noun an undeveloped branch

Bud noun an undeveloped branch

Bud noun an undeveloped branch



Bud (noun): an undeveloped branch.

Bud (verb): to insert a bud from the scion upon the stock to insure better fruit.

Bud variation: occasionally one bud on a plant will produce a branch differing in some ways from the rest of the branches; this is bud variation. The shoot that is produced by bud variation is called a sport.

Calyx: the outermost row of leaves in a flower.

Sunday, November 22, 2015

Biennial a plant that produces seed during

Biennial a plant that produces seed during

Biennial a plant that produces seed during



Biennial: a plant that produces seed during the second year of its existence and then dies.

Blight: a diseased condition in plants in which the whole or a part of a plant withers or dries up.

Bluestone: a chemical; copper sulphate. It is used to kill fungi, etc.

Bordeaux Mixture: a mixture invented in Bordeaux, France, to destroy disease-producing fungi.

Saturday, November 21, 2015

Food in such condition that plants can use it

Food in such condition that plants can use it

Food in such condition that plants can use it



Available plant food: food in such condition that plants can use it.

Bacteria: a name applied to a number of kinds of very small living beings, some beneficial, some harmful, some disease-producing. They average about one twenty-thousandth of an inch in length.

Balanced ration: a ration made up of the proper amounts of carbohydrates, fats, and protein, as explained in text. Such a ration avoids all waste of food.

Friday, November 20, 2015

Annual a plant that bears seed during

Annual a plant that bears seed during

Annual a plant that bears seed during



Annual: a plant that bears seed during the first year of its existence and then dies.

Anther: the part of a stamen that bears the pollen.

Atmospheric nitrogen: nitrogen in the air. Great quantities of this valuable plant food are in the air; but, strange to say, most plants cannot use it directly from the air, but must take it in other forms, as nitrates, etc. The legumes are an exception, as they can use atmospheric nitrogen.

Thursday, November 19, 2015

Glossary

Glossary

Glossary


To enable young readers to understand the technical words necessarily used in the text only popular definitions are given.

Abdomen: the part of an insect lying behind the thorax.

Acid: a chemical name given to many sour substances. Vinegar and lemon juice owe their sour taste to the acid in them.

Adult: a person, animal, or plant grown to full size and strength.

Ammonia (ammonium): a compound of nitrogen readily usable as a plant food. It is one of the products of decay.

Wednesday, November 18, 2015

Which should first be worked through a sieve to break up the lumps

Which should first be worked through a sieve to break up the lumps

Which should first be worked through a sieve to break up the lumps



The lime should be placed in a barrel and enough water poured on it to start it slaking and to keep the sulphur off the bottom of the barrel. The sulphur, which should first be worked through a sieve to break up the lumps, may then be added, and, finally, enough water to slake the lime into a paste. Considerable stirring is necessary to prevent caking on the bottom. After the violent boiling which accompanies the slaking of the lime is over, the mixture should be diluted ready for use, or at least enough cold water added to stop the cooking. From five to fifteen minutes are required for the process. If the hot mass is permitted to stand undiluted as a thick paste, a liquid is produced that is injurious to peach foliage and, in some cases, to apple foliage.

The mixture should be strained through a sieve of twenty meshes to the inch in order to remove the coarse particles of lime, but all the sulphur should be worked through the strainer.

Tuesday, November 17, 2015

Self-boiled Lime-sulphur Wash

Self-boiled Lime-sulphur Wash

Self-boiled Lime-sulphur Wash


The self-boiled lime-sulphur wash is a combination of lime and sulphur boiled only by the heat of the slaking lime, and is used chiefly for summer spraying on peaches, plums, cherries, etc. as a substitute for the Bordeaux mixture.

Lime8 lb.
Sulphur6 to 8 lb.
Water50 gal.

Monday, November 16, 2015

Sprays For Both Fungous And Insect Pests

Sprays For Both Fungous And Insect Pests

Sprays For Both Fungous And Insect Pests


Home-Made Lime-Sulphur Wash
Lime20 lb.
Sulphur15 lb.
Water50 gal.

The lime, the sulphur, and about half of the water required are boiled together for forty-five minutes in a kettle over a fire, or in a barrel or other suitable tank by steam, strained, and then diluted to 50 gallons. This is the wash regularly used against the San Jose scale. It may be substituted for Bordeaux mixture when spraying trees in the dormant state. Commercial lime-sulphur may also be used in place of this homemade wash. Use one gallon of the commercial lime-sulphur to nine gallons of water in the dormant season.

Sunday, November 15, 2015

Use for spraying apples

Use for spraying apples

Use for spraying apples



Use for spraying apples.

Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate
Copper carbonate5 oz.
Ammonia (26° Baumé)about 3 pt.
Water50 gal.

Dissolve the copper carbonate in the smallest possible amount of ammonia. This solution may be kept in stock and diluted to the proper strength as needed.

Use this instead of the Bordeaux mixture after the fruit has reached half or two thirds of the mature size. It leaves no spots as does the lime-sulphur wash or the Bordeaux mixture.

Saturday, November 14, 2015

Used for fungous and insect enemies of the potato

Used for fungous and insect enemies of the potato

Used for fungous and insect enemies of the potato



Used for fungous and insect enemies of the potato, and of the apple when bitter rot is troublesome.

Commercial Lime-Sulphur Arsenate of Lead
Commercial lime-sulphur1½ gal.
Arsenate of lead2 to 3 lb.
Water50 gal.

Friday, November 13, 2015

Use for both fungi and insects on apple

Use for both fungi and insects on apple

Use for both fungi and insects on apple



Use for both fungi and insects on apple, potato, etc.

Bordeaux-Arsenate-of-Lead Mixture
Ordinary Bordeaux mixture50 gal.
Arsenate of lead2 to 3 lb.

Thursday, November 12, 2015

Use for molds and fungi generally

Use for molds and fungi generally

Use for molds and fungi generally



Mix fresh for each time. Use for molds and fungi generally. Apply in fine spray with a good nozzle.

Bordeaux-paris-green Mixture
Ordinary Bordeaux mixture50 gal.
Paris green4 oz. to 2 lb.

Wednesday, November 11, 2015

Slake the lime slowly so as to get a smooth

Slake the lime slowly so as to get a smooth

Slake the lime slowly so as to get a smooth



Dissolve the copper sulphate (bluestone) in twenty-five gallons of water. Slake the lime slowly so as to get a smooth, thick cream. Never cover the lime with too much water. After thorough slaking add twenty-five gallons of water. When the lime and the bluestone have dissolved, pour the two liquids into a third vessel. Be sure that each stream mixes with the other before either enters the vessel. Strain through a coarse cloth.

Tuesday, November 10, 2015

For Fungous Diseases

For Fungous Diseases

For Fungous Diseases


Copper Sulphate
Copper sulphate1 lb.
Water18 to 25 gal.

Use only before foliage opens, to kill wintering spores.

Bordeaux Mixture
Copper sulphate (bluestone)4 to 5 lb.
Lime (good, unslaked)5 to 6 lb.
Water50 gal.

Monday, November 9, 2015

For Soft-bodied Sucking Insects

For Soft-bodied Sucking Insects

For Soft-bodied Sucking Insects


Kerosene Emulsion
Hard soap (in fine shavings)½ lb.
Soft water1 gal.
Kerosene2 gal.

Dissolve soap in boiling water, add kerosene to the hot water, churn with spraying pump for at least ten minutes, until the mixture changes to a creamy, then to a soft, butterlike, mass. This gives three gallons of 66-per-cent oil emulsion, which may be diluted to the strength desired. To get 15-per-cent oil emulsion add ten and one-half gallons of water.

Sunday, November 8, 2015

For Biting Insects

For Biting Insects

For Biting Insects


Dry Paris Green Wet Paris Green
Paris green 1 lb. Paris green ¼ to 2 lb.
Lime or flour 4 to 16 lb. Lime ¼ to ½ lb.
Water 50 gal.

Saturday, November 7, 2015

Build towns and cities out of the wreck of country homes

Build towns and cities out of the wreck of country homes

Build towns and cities out of the wreck of country homes



Life in the country will never be as attractive as it ought to be until all the roads are improved. Winter-washed roads, penning young people in their own homes for many months each year and destroying so many of the innocent pleasures of youth, build towns and cities out of the wreck of country homes. Can young people who love their country and their country homes engage in a nobler crusade than a crusade for improved highways?



Friday, November 6, 2015

And pupils of a school join hands

And pupils of a school join hands

And pupils of a school join hands



If the parents, teachers, and pupils of a school join hands, an unsightly, ill-furnished, ill-lighted, and ill-ventilated school-house can at small cost be changed into one of comfort and beauty. In many places pupils have persuaded their parents to form clubs to beautify the school grounds. Each father sends a man or a man with a plow once or twice a year to work a day on the grounds. Stumps are removed, trees trimmed, drains put in, grass sowed, flowers, shrubbery, vines, and trees planted, and the grounds tastefully laid off. Thus at scarcely noticeable money cost a rough and unsightly school ground gives place to a charming school yard. Cannot the pupils in every school in which this book is studied get their parents to form such a club, and make their school ground a silent teacher of neatness and beauty?



Fig. 295. Washington's Country Home

Thursday, November 5, 2015

Agricultural papers that arouse the interest and quicken

Agricultural papers that arouse the interest and quicken

Agricultural papers that arouse the interest and quicken



Agricultural papers that arouse the interest and quicken the thought of farm boys by discussing the best, easiest, and cheapest ways of farming; journals full of dainty suggestions for household adornment and comfort; illustrated papers and magazines that amuse and cheer every member of the family; books that rest tired bodies and open and strengthen growing minds—all of these are so cheap that the money reserved from the sale of one hog will keep a family fairly supplied for a year.



Fig. 292. An Unimproved Schoolhouse




Fig. 293. An Improved Schoolhouse




Fig. 294. The Same Road after and before Improvement

Wednesday, November 4, 2015

But as long as grass and flowers and vines and trees grow

But as long as grass and flowers and vines and trees grow

But as long as grass and flowers and vines and trees grow



Not every man who lives in the country can have a showy or costly home, but as long as grass and flowers and vines and trees grow, any man who wishes can have an attractive house. Not every woman who is to spend a lifetime at the head of a rural home can have a luxuriously furnished home, but any woman who is willing to take a little trouble can have a cozy, tastefully furnished home—a home fitted with the conveniences that diminish household drudgery. Even in this day of cheap literature, all parents cannot fill their children's home with papers, magazines, and books, but by means of school and Sunday-school libraries, by means of circulating book clubs, and by a little self-denial, earnest parents can feed hungry minds just as they feed hungry bodies.



THE QUEEN OF FLOWERS FOR THE HOME.




Fig. 291. An Attractive Country Home

Tuesday, November 3, 2015

One of the problems of our day is how to keep bright

One of the problems of our day is how to keep bright

One of the problems of our day is how to keep bright



One of the problems of our day is how to keep bright, thoughtful, sociable, ambitious boys and girls contented on the farm. Every step taken to make the country home more attractive, to make the school and its grounds more enjoyable, to make the way easy to the homes of neighbors, to school, to post-office, and to church, is a step taken toward keeping on the farm the very boys and girls who are most apt to succeed there.

Monday, November 2, 2015

Happy would it be for our nation if

Happy would it be for our nation if

Happy would it be for our nation if



Happy would it be for our nation if all the young people who live in the country could begin their training in good citizenship by becoming workers for these four things:

First, attractive country homes.

Second, attractive country schoolhouses and school grounds.

Third, good country schools.

Fourth, good roads.

If the thousands on thousands of pupils in our schools would become active workers for these things and continue their work through life, then, in less than half a century, life in the country would be an unending delight.

Sunday, November 1, 2015

Life in The Country

Life in The Country

Life in The Country


As ours is a country in which the people rule, every boy and every girl ought to be trained to take a wide-awake interest in public affairs. This training cannot begin too early in life. A wise old man once said, "In a republic you ought to begin to train a child for good citizenship on the day of its birth."



Fig. 289. Beauty from Flowers and Grass




Fig. 290. A Country Road in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina

Saturday, October 31, 2015

Methods of Irrigating Crops

Methods of Irrigating Crops

Methods of Irrigating Crops


Tree fruits. Water is conducted through very narrow furrows from three to five feet apart, and allowed to sink about four feet deep, and to spread under the ground. Then the supply is cut off. The object is to wet the soil deeply, and then by tillage to hold the moisture in the soil.

Small fruits. The common practice is to run water on each side of the row until the rows are soaked.

Potatoes. A thorough soaking is given the land before planting-time, and then no more than is absolutely necessary until blossoming-time. After the blossoms appear keep the soil moist until the crop ripens.

Garden crops. Any method may be employed, but the vital point is to cultivate the ground as early as it can be worked after it has been irrigated.

Meadows and alfalfa. Flooding is the most common method in use. The first irrigation comes early in the spring before growth has advanced much, and the successive waterings after the harvesting of each crop.

Friday, October 30, 2015

The furrow method is usually employed for fruits

The furrow method is usually employed for fruits

The furrow method is usually employed for fruits



The furrow method is usually employed for fruits and for farm and garden crops. In many places the grass and grain crops are now supplied with water by furrows instead of by flooding.

Irrigated lands should be carefully and thoroughly tilled. The water for irrigation is costly, and should be made to go as far as possible. Good tillage saves the water. Moreover, all cultivated crops like corn, potatoes, and orchard and truck crops ought to be cultivated frequently to save the moisture, to keep the soil in fit condition, and to aid the bacteria in the soil. It was a wise farmer who said, "One does not need to grow crops many years in order to learn that nothing can take the place of stirring the soil."

Thursday, October 29, 2015

The latter plan is the cheaper

The latter plan is the cheaper

The latter plan is the cheaper



Water is generally applied either by making furrows for its passage through the fields or by flooding the land. The latter plan is the cheaper, but it can be used only on level lands. Where the land is somewhat irregular a checking system, as it is called, is used to distribute the water. It is taken from check to check until the entire field has been irrigated.



Fig. 288. The Process of Irrigating Corn

Wednesday, October 28, 2015

Can be used for watering very large areas of land

Can be used for watering very large areas of land

Can be used for watering very large areas of land



None of these methods, however, can be used for watering very large areas of land. Hence, as the value of farm lands increased other methods were sought. Shrewd men began to turn longing eyes on the wide stretches of barren land in the West. They knew that these waste lands, seemingly so unfertile, would become most fruitful as soon as water was turned on them. Could water enough be found? New plans to pen up floods of water were prepared, and immense sums were spent in carrying out these plans. Enormous dams of cemented stone were thrown across the gorges in the foothills of the mountains. Behind these solid dams the water from the rains and the melting snow of the mountains was backed for miles, and was at once ready to change barrenness into fruitfulness. The stored water is led by means of main canals and cross ditches wherever it is needed, and countless acres have been brought under cultivation.

Tuesday, October 27, 2015

Engines are often used for pumping water from

Engines are often used for pumping water from

Engines are often used for pumping water from



Engines are often used for pumping water from streams and transferring it to ditches or canals. The canals distribute the water over the land or over the growing crops.



Fig. 287. The Main Ditch of an Irrigation Plant

Monday, October 26, 2015

Artesian wells are used in some parts of the country

Artesian wells are used in some parts of the country

Artesian wells are used in some parts of the country



The most common source of water for irrigating purposes is a river or a smaller stream. Artesian wells are used in some parts of the country. Windmills are sometimes used when only a small supply of water is needed. Engines, hydraulic rams, and water-wheels are also employed. The water-wheel is one of the oldest and one of the most useful methods of raising water from streams. There are thousands of these in use in the dry regions of the West. Small buckets are fastened to a large wheel, which is turned by the current of a stream. As the wheel turns, the buckets are filled, raised, and then emptied into a trough called a flume. The water flows through the flume into the irrigating ditches, which distribute it as it is needed in the fields. In some parts of California and other comparatively dry sections, wells are sunk in or near the beds of underground streams, and then the water is pumped into ditches which convey it to the fields to be irrigated.

Sunday, October 25, 2015

Irrigation

Irrigation

Irrigation


Irrigation is the name given to the plan of supplying water in large quantities to growing crops. Since the dawn of history this practice has been more or less followed in Asia, in Africa, and in Europe. The Spanish settlers in the southwestern part of America were probably the first to introduce this custom into our country. In New Mexico there is an irrigating trench that has been in constant use for three hundred years.



Fig. 286. Pumping Water for Irrigation

Saturday, October 24, 2015

To sum up then farmers can

To sum up then farmers can

To sum up then farmers can



To sum up, then, farmers can grow good crops in these lands only when four things are done: first, the land must be thoroughly tilled so that water can freely enter the soil; second, the land must be frequently cultivated so that the water will be kept in the soil; third, the crops must be properly rotated so as to use to best advantage the food and water supply; fourth, humus must be freely supplied so as to keep the soil in the best possible condition.

Friday, October 23, 2015

Some crops need a little different management in dry-farming

Some crops need a little different management in dry-farming

Some crops need a little different management in dry-farming



Some crops need a little different management in dry-farming. Corn, for example, does best when it is listed; that is, planted so that it will come up three or four inches beneath the surface. If planted in this way, it roots better, stands up better, and requires less work.

Just as breeders study what animals are best for their climates, so farmers in the dry belt should study what crops are best suited to their lands. Some crops, like the sorghums and Kafir corn, are peculiarly at home in scantily watered lands. Others do not thrive. Experience is the only sure guide to the proper selection.

Thursday, October 22, 2015

In addition to a vigilant catching and saving of water

In addition to a vigilant catching and saving of water

In addition to a vigilant catching and saving of water



In addition to a vigilant catching and saving of water, the farmer in these dry climates must give his land the same careful attention that lands in other regions need. The seed-bed should be most carefully prepared. It should be deep, porous, and excellent in tilth. During the growing season all crops should be frequently cultivated. The harrow, the cultivator, and the plow should be kept busy. The soil should be kept abundantly supplied with humus.

Wednesday, October 21, 2015

Some experiments in wheat-growing have shown how readily

Some experiments in wheat-growing have shown how readily

Some experiments in wheat-growing have shown how readily



Some experiments in wheat-growing have shown how readily water might be saved if plowing were done at the right time. Wheat sowed on land that was plowed as soon as the summer crops were taken off yielded a very much larger return than wheat sowed on land that remained untilled for some time after the summer crops were gathered. This difference in yield on lands of the same fertility was due to the fact that the early plowing enabled the land to take up a sufficient quantity of moisture.



Fig. 285. Red Kafir Corn in Shock

Tuesday, October 20, 2015

The soil in this section is as a rule very fertile

The soil in this section is as a rule very fertile

The soil in this section is as a rule very fertile



The soil in this section is as a rule very fertile. Therefore the difference between farming in this dry belt and farming in most of the other sections of our country is a difference mainly due to a lack of moisture.

As water is so scarce in this region two things are of the utmost importance: first, to save all the rain as it falls; second, to save all the water after it has fallen. To save the falling rain it is necessary for the ground to be in such a condition that none of the much-needed rain may run off. Every drop should go into the soil. Hence the farmer should never allow his top soil to harden into a crust. Such a crust will keep the rain from sinking into the thirsty soil. Moreover the soil should be deeply plowed. The deeper the soil the more water it can hold. The land should also be kept as porous as possible, for water enters a porous soil freely. The addition of humus in the form of vegetable manures will keep the soil in the porous condition needed. Second, after the water has entered the soil it is important to hold it there so that it may supply the growing crops. If the land is allowed to remain untilled after a rain or during a hot spell, the water in it will evaporate too rapidly and thus the soil, like a well, will go dry too soon. To prevent this the top soil should be stirred frequently with a disk or smoothing harrow. This stirring will form a mulch of dry soil on the surface, and this will hold the water. Other forms of mulch have been suggested, but the soil mulch is the only practical one. It must be borne in mind that this surface cultivation must be regularly kept up if the moisture is to be retained.



Fig. 284. The Disk Harrow

Monday, October 19, 2015

Farming on Dry Lands

Farming on Dry Lands

Farming on Dry Lands


Almost in the center of the western half of our continent there is a vast area in which very little rain falls. This section includes nearly three hundred million acres of land. It stretches from Canada on the north into Texas on the south, and from the Missouri River (including the Dakotas and western Minnesota) on the east to the Rocky Mountains on the west. In this great area farming has to be done with little water. This sort of farming is therefore called "dry-farming."

Sunday, October 18, 2015

The preparation of homes for the birds

The preparation of homes for the birds

The preparation of homes for the birds



It is an interesting study—the preparation of homes for the birds. Trees may be pruned to make inviting crotches. A tangled, overgrown corner in the garden will invite some birds to nest.

Wrens, bluebirds, chickadees, martins, and some other varieties are all glad to set up housekeeping in man-made houses. The proper size for a bird-room is easily remembered. Give each room six square inches of floor space and make it eight inches high. Old, weathered boards should be used; or, if paint is employed, a dull color to resemble an old tree-trunk will be most inviting. A single opening near the top should be made two inches in diameter for the larger birds; but if the house is to be headquarters for the wren, a one-inch opening is quite large enough, and the small door serves all the better to keep out English sparrows.

The barn attic should be turned over to the swallows. Small holes may be cut high up in the gables and left open during the time that the swallows remain with us. They will more than pay for shelter by the good work they do in ridding the barn of flies, gnats, and mosquitoes.

Saturday, October 17, 2015

Think out carefully what materials to provide for them

Think out carefully what materials to provide for them

Think out carefully what materials to provide for them



Whatever we do to attract the birds to make homes on the premises must be done at the right time and in the right way. Think out carefully what materials to provide for them. Bits of string, linen, cotton, yarn, tow and other waste material, all help to induce a pair to build in the garden.



Fig. 283. Protecting our Friends

Friday, October 16, 2015

If the birds felt that man were a friend and not a foe

If the birds felt that man were a friend and not a foe

If the birds felt that man were a friend and not a foe



If the birds felt that man were a friend and not a foe, they would often turn to him for protection. During times of severe storm, extreme drought, or scarcity of food, if the birds were sufficiently tamed to come to man as their friend, as they do in rare cases now, a little food and shelter might tide them over the hard time and their service afterwards would repay the outlay a thousandfold. If the boys in your families would build bird-houses about the house and barn and in shade trees, they might save yearly a great number of birds. In building these places of shelter and comfort, due care must be taken to keep them clear of English sparrows and out of the reach of cats and bird-dogs.

Thursday, October 15, 2015

It has been estimated that a bird will devour thirty insects daily

It has been estimated that a bird will devour thirty insects daily

It has been estimated that a bird will devour thirty insects daily



It has been estimated that a bird will devour thirty insects daily. Even in a widely extended forest region a very few birds to the acre, if they kept up this rate, would daily destroy many bushels of insects that would play havoc with the neighboring orchards and fields.

Do not imagine, however, that to destroy insects is the only use of birds. The day is far more delightful when the birds sing, and when we see them flit in and out, giving us a glimpse now and then of their pretty coats and quaint ways. By giving them a home we can surround ourselves with many birds, sweet of song and brilliant of plumage.

Wednesday, October 14, 2015

These little feathered neighbors are

These little feathered neighbors are

These little feathered neighbors are



A count of all the different kinds of animals shows that insects make up nine tenths of them. Hence it is easy to see that if something did not check their increase they would soon almost overrun the earth. Our forests and orchards furnish homes and breeding-places for most of these insects. Suppose the injurious insects were allowed to multiply unchecked in the forests, their numbers would so increase that they would invade our fields and create as much terror among the farmers as they did in Pharaoh's Egypt. The birds are the only direct friends man has to destroy these harmful insects. What benefactors, then, these little feathered neighbors are!



Fig. 282. The Hairy Woodpecker

Tuesday, October 13, 2015

They also destroy the chinch bug and the grasshopper

They also destroy the chinch bug and the grasshopper

They also destroy the chinch bug and the grasshopper



During the winter the bark is the hiding-place for hibernating insects, which, like plant lice, feed in summer on the leaves. Throughout the winter a single chickadee will destroy great numbers of the eggs of the cankerworm moth and of the plant louse. The blackbirds, meadow larks, crows, quail, and sparrows are the great protectors of the meadow and field crops. These birds feed on the army worms and cutworms that do so much injury to the young shoots; they also destroy the chinch bug and the grasshopper, both of which feed on cultivated plants.

Monday, October 12, 2015

The robins on the lawn search out the caterpillars and cutworms

The robins on the lawn search out the caterpillars and cutworms

The robins on the lawn search out the caterpillars and cutworms



The robins on the lawn search out the caterpillars and cutworms. The chipping sparrow and the wren in the shrubbery look out for all kinds of insects. They watch over the orchard and feed freely on the enemies of the apple and other fruit trees. The trunks of these trees are often attacked by borers, which gnaw holes in the bark and wood, and often cause the death of the trees. The woodpeckers hunt for these appetizing borers and by means of their barbed tongues bring them from their hiding-places. On the outside of the bark of the trunk and branches the bark lice work. These are devoured by the nuthatches, creepers, and chickadees.



Fig. 281. A Warbler

Sunday, October 11, 2015

The third class is known as the hard-billed birds

The third class is known as the hard-billed birds

The third class is known as the hard-billed birds



The third class is known as the hard-billed birds. It includes those birds which live principally on seeds and grain—the canary, goldfinch, sparrow, and some others.

Birds that come early, like the bluebird, robin, and redwing, are of special service in destroying insects before the insects lay their eggs for the season.

Saturday, October 10, 2015

Birds of the second class feed by preference on fruits

Birds of the second class feed by preference on fruits

Birds of the second class feed by preference on fruits



Birds of the second class feed by preference on fruits, nuts, and grain. The bluebird, robin, wood thrush, mocking-bird, catbird, chickadee, cedar-bird, meadow lark, oriole, jay, crow, and woodpecker belong to this group. These birds never fail to perform a service for us by devouring many weed seeds.



Fig. 280. A Kingbird

Friday, October 9, 2015

Not all birds feed on insects and animals

Not all birds feed on insects and animals

Not all birds feed on insects and animals



Not all birds feed on insects and animals; but even those that eat but a small amount of insect food may still destroy insects that would have damaged fruit and crops much more than the birds themselves do.

As to their food, birds are divided into three general classes. First, those that live wholly or almost wholly on insects. These are called insectivorous birds. Chief among these are the warblers, cuckoos, swallows, martins, flycatchers, nighthawks, whippoorwills, swifts, and humming-birds. We cannot have too many of these birds. They should be encouraged and protected. They should be supplied with shelter and water.

Thursday, October 8, 2015

Birds

Birds

Birds


What do birds do in the world? is an important question for us to think about. First, we must gain by observation and by personal acquaintance with the living birds a knowledge of their work and their way of doing it. In getting this knowledge, let us also consider what we can do for our birds to render their work as complete and effective as possible.

Think of what the birds are doing on every farm, in every garden, and about every home in the land. Think of the millions of beautiful wings, of the graceful and attractive figures, of the cunning nests, and of the singing throats! Do you think that the whole service of the birds is to be beautiful, to sing charmingly, and to rear their little ones? By no means is this their chief service to man. Aside from these services the greatest work of birds is to destroy insects. It is one of the wise provisions of nature that many of the most brilliantly winged and most enchanting songsters are our most practical friends.

Wednesday, October 7, 2015

Water-slaked lime is quicklime to which water has been added

Water-slaked lime is quicklime to which water has been added

Water-slaked lime is quicklime to which water has been added



Water-slaked lime is quicklime to which water has been added. In other words, both of these are merely weakened forms of quicklime. One hundred pounds of quicklime is equal in richness to 132 pounds of water-slaked lime and to 178 pounds of air-slaked lime. These figures should be remembered by a farmer when he is buying lime. If he can buy a fair grade of quicklime delivered at his railway station for $5.00 a ton, he cannot afford to pay more than $3.75 a ton for water-slaked lime, nor more than $2.75 for air-slaked lime of equal grade. Quicklime should always be slaked before it is applied to the soil.

As a rule lime should be spread broadcast and then harrowed or disked thoroughly into the soil. This is best done after the ground has been plowed. For pastures or meadows air-slaked lime is used as a top-dressing. When air-slaked lime is used it may be spread broadcast in the spring; the other forms should be applied in the fall or in the early winter.

Tuesday, October 6, 2015

This form of lime is known to the chemists as sulphate of lime

This form of lime is known to the chemists as sulphate of lime

This form of lime is known to the chemists as sulphate of lime



Fourth, land plaster, or gypsum. This form of lime is known to the chemists as sulphate of lime. Do not forget that this last form is never to be used on sour lands. We shall therefore not consider it further.

Air-slaked lime is simply quicklime which has taken from the air a gas called carbon dioxide. This is the same gas that you breathe out from your lungs.

Monday, October 5, 2015

Four forms of lime are used on land

Four forms of lime are used on land

Four forms of lime are used on land



Four forms of lime are used on land. These, each called by different names, are as follows:

First, quicklime, which is also called burnt lime, caustic lime, builders' lime, rock lime, and unslaked lime.

Second, air-slaked lime, which is also known as carbonate of lime, agricultural lime, marl, and limestone.

Third, water-slaked, or hydrated, lime.

Sunday, October 4, 2015

The leguminous crops are fond of lime

The leguminous crops are fond of lime

The leguminous crops are fond of lime



In the second place, the leguminous crops are fond of lime. Clover and vetch remove so much lime from the soil that they are often called lime plants. If clover and vetch refuse to grow on land on which they formerly flourished, it is generally, though not always, a sign that the land needs lime.

In the third place, when water grasses and certain weeds spring up on land, that land is usually acid, and lime will be helpful. Moreover, fields adjoining land on which cranberries, raspberries, blackberries, or gallberries are growing wild, may always be suspected of more or less sourness.

Saturday, October 3, 2015

We can tell by the taste when salads are too sour

We can tell by the taste when salads are too sour

We can tell by the taste when salads are too sour



We can tell by the taste when salads are too sour; it is more difficult to find out whether land is sour. There are, however, some methods that will help to determine the sourness of the soil.

In the first place, if land is unusually sour, you can determine this fact by a simple test. Buy a pennyworth of blue litmus paper from a drug store. Mix some of the suspected soil with a little water and bury the litmus paper in the mixture. If the paper turns red the soil is sour.

Friday, October 2, 2015

Too much must not be expected of lime

Too much must not be expected of lime

Too much must not be expected of lime



However, too much must not be expected of lime. Often a farmer's yield is so increased after he has scattered lime over his fields that he thinks that lime alone will keep his land fertile. This belief explains the saying, "Lime enriches the father but beggars the son." The continued use of lime without other fertilization will indeed leave poor land for the son. Lime is just as necessary to plant growth as the potash and nitrogen and phosphoric acid about which we hear so much, but it cannot take the place of these plant foods. Its duty is to aid, not to displace them.

Thursday, October 1, 2015

In addition to sweetening the soil by overcoming the acids

In addition to sweetening the soil by overcoming the acids

In addition to sweetening the soil by overcoming the acids



So far as we now know, liming the land is the cheapest and surest way of overcoming the sourness. In addition to sweetening the soil by overcoming the acids, lime aids the land in other ways: it quickens the growth of helpful bacteria; it loosens stiff, heavy clay soils and thereby fits them for easier tillage; it indirectly sets free the potash and phosphoric acid so much needed by plants; and it increases the capillarity of soils.

Wednesday, September 30, 2015

The land may be soured in several ways

The land may be soured in several ways

The land may be soured in several ways



The land may be soured in several ways. Whenever a large amount of vegetable matter decays in land, acids are formed, and at times sourness of the soil results. Often soils sour because they are not well drained or because, from lack of proper tillage, air cannot make its way into the soil. Sometimes all these causes may combine to produce sourness. Since most crops cannot thrive on very sour soil, the farmer must find some method of making his land sweet again.

Tuesday, September 29, 2015

Liming The Land

Liming The Land

Liming The Land


Occasionally, when a cook puts too much vinegar in a salad, the dish becomes so sour that it is unfit to eat. The vinegar which the cook uses belongs to a large group of compounds known as acids. The acids are common in nature. They have the power not only of making salads sour but also of making land sour. Frequently land becomes so sour from acids forming in it that it will not bear its usual crops. The acids must then be removed or the land will become useless.

Monday, September 28, 2015

The machinery that makes farming so much more

The machinery that makes farming so much more

The machinery that makes farming so much more



The machinery that makes farming so much more economical and that makes the farmer's life so much easier and more comfortable is too complicated to be put into the hands of bunglers who will soon destroy it, and it is too costly to be left in the fields or under trees to rust and rot.

If it is not convenient for every farmer to have a separate tool-house, he should at least set apart a room in his barn, or a shed for storing his tools and machines. As soon as a plow, harrow, cultivator—indeed any tool or machine—has finished its share of work for the season, it should receive whatever attention it needs to prevent rusting, and should be carefully housed.

Such care, which is neither costly nor burdensome, will add many years to the life of a machine.

Sunday, September 27, 2015

The farmer of the future must know three things well

The farmer of the future must know three things well

The farmer of the future must know three things well



The farmer of the future must know three things well: first, what machines he can profitably use; second, how to manage these machines; third, how to care for these machines.



Fig. 276. Properly Protected Tools and Machines




Fig. 277. Unprotected Tools and Machines




Fig. 278. The Harvester at Work




Fig. 279. In Need of Improvement

Saturday, September 26, 2015

Farm Tools And Machines

Farm Tools And Machines

Farm Tools And Machines


The drudgery of farm life is being lessened from year to year by the invention or improvement of farm tools and machines. Perhaps some of you know how tiresome was the old up-and-down churn dasher that has now generally given place to the "quick-coming" churns. The toothed, horse-drawn cultivator has nearly displaced "the man with the hoe," while the scythe, slow and back-breaking, is everywhere getting out of the way of the mowing-machine and the horserake. The old heavy, sweat-drawing grain-cradle is slinking into the backwoods, and in its place we have the horse-drawn or steam-drawn harvester that cuts and binds the grain, and even threshes and measures it at one operation. Instead of the plowman's wearily making one furrow at a time, the gang-plows of the plains cut many furrows at one time, and instead of walking the plowman rides. The shredder and husker turns the hitherto useless cornstalk into food, and at the same time husks, or shucks, the corn.

Friday, September 25, 2015

Land may be made to retain its fertility for generations

Land may be made to retain its fertility for generations

Land may be made to retain its fertility for generations



Since cowpeas, clover, and alfalfa add atmospheric nitrogen to the soil and at the same time are the best feeding-materials, it follows that these crops should hold an important place in every system of crop-rotation. By proper rotating, by proper terracing, and by proper drainage, land may be made to retain its fertility for generations.

EXERCISE

1. Why are cowpeas, clover, and alfalfa so important to the farmer?

2. What is meant by the protein of a food?

3. Why is it better to feed the farm crops to animals on the farm rather than to sell these crops?

Thursday, September 24, 2015

The crops that produce the most

The crops that produce the most

The crops that produce the most



4. The crops that produce the most. We often call a crop a crop without considering how much it yields. This is a mistake. We ought to grow, when we have choice of two crops, the one that is the best and the most productive on the farm. Average corn, for instance, yields on an acre at least twice the quantity of feeding-material that timothy does.

5. The crops that will keep our soil in the best condition. A good farmer should always be thinking of how to improve his soil. He wants his land to support him and to maintain his children after he is dead.

Wednesday, September 23, 2015

The crops that will give us the most protein

The crops that will give us the most protein

The crops that will give us the most protein



3. The crops that will give us the most protein. It is the farmer's business to grow all the grass and forage that his farm animals need. He ought never to be obliged to purchase a bale of forage. Moreover, he should grow mainly those crops that are rich in protein materials, for example, cowpeas, alfalfa, and clover. If such crops are produced on the farm, there will be little need of buying so much cotton-seed meal, corn, and bran for feeding purposes.

Tuesday, September 22, 2015

What coal is most economical for his engines

What coal is most economical for his engines

What coal is most economical for his engines



The successful railroad manager determines by practical experience what distances his engines and crews ought to run in a day, what coal is most economical for his engines, what schedules best suit the needs of his road, what trains pay him best. These and a thousand and one other matters are settled by the special needs of his road.

Ought the man who wants to make his farm pay be less prudent and less far-sighted? Should not his past failures and his past triumphs decide his future? If he be a dairy farmer, ought he not by practical tests to settle for himself not only what crops are most at home on his land but also what crops in his circumstances yield him the largest returns in milk and butter? If swine-raising be his business, how long ought he to guess what crop on his land yields him the greatest amount of hog food? Should a colt be fed on one kind of forage when the land that produced that forage would produce twice as much equally good forage of another kind? All these questions the prudent farmer should answer promptly and in the light of wise experiments.

Monday, September 21, 2015

Our aim should be to make the best use of what we have

Our aim should be to make the best use of what we have

Our aim should be to make the best use of what we have



Our aim should be to make the best use of what we have, to improve by selection and care those kinds best adapted to our soil and climate, and to secure, by better methods of growing and curing, the greatest yields at the least possible cost.

2. The crops best suited to our line of business. A farmer necessarily becomes more or less of a specialist; he gathers those kinds of live stock about him which he likes best and which he finds the most profitable. He should, on his farm, select for his main crops those that he can grow with the greatest pleasure and with the greatest profit.



Fig. 275. Filling the Barn with Roughage from the Farm

Sunday, September 20, 2015

The crops best suited to our soil and climate

The crops best suited to our soil and climate

The crops best suited to our soil and climate



1. The crops best suited to our soil and climate. Farm crops, as every child of the farm knows, are not equally adapted to all soils and climates. Cotton cannot be produced where the climate is cool and the seasons short. Timothy and blue grass are most productive on cool, limestone soils. Cowpeas demand warm, dry soils. But in spite of climatic limitations, Nature has been generous in the wide variety of forage she has given us.

Saturday, September 19, 2015

The crops best suited to our soil and climate

The crops best suited to our soil and climate

The crops best suited to our soil and climate



1. The crops best suited to our soil and climate.
2. The crops best suited to our line of business.
3. The crops that will give us the most protein.
4. The crops that produce the most.
5. The crops that will keep our soil in the best condition.

Friday, September 18, 2015

Growing Feed Stuffs on The Farm

Growing Feed Stuffs on The Farm

Growing Feed Stuffs on The Farm


Economy in raising live stock demands the production of all "roughness" or roughage materials on the farm. By roughness, or roughage, of course you understand that bulky food, like hay, grass, clover, stover, etc., is meant. It is possible to purchase all roughage materials and yet make a financial success of growing farm animals, but this certainly is not the surest way to succeed. Every farm should raise all its feed stuffs. In deciding what forage and grain crops to grow we should decide:

Thursday, September 17, 2015

EXERCISE

EXERCISE

EXERCISE



EXERCISE

1. Find the number of pounds of butter in 1200 pounds of milk that tests 3 per cent of butter-fat.

2. A cow yields 4800 pounds of milk in a year. Her milk tests 4 per cent of butter-fat. Find the total amount of butter-fat she yields. Find also the total amount of butter.

3. The milk of two cows was tested: one yielded in a year 6000 pounds of milk that tested 3 per cent of fat; the other yielded 5000 pounds that tested 4 per cent. Which cow yielded the more butter-fat? What was the money value of the butter produced by each if butter-fat is worth twenty-five cents a pound?



Wednesday, September 16, 2015

The Tester, Acid, Acid Measure, Test-bottle, And Thermometer at Bottom; Filling The Pipette on Right; Adding The Acid And Measuring The Fat at Top

The Tester, Acid, Acid Measure, Test-bottle, And Thermometer at Bottom; Filling The Pipette on Right; Adding The Acid And Measuring The Fat at Top

The Tester, Acid, Acid Measure, Test-bottle, And Thermometer at Bottom; Filling The Pipette on Right; Adding The Acid And Measuring The Fat at Top


The Babcock tester shows only the amount of pure butter-fat in the milk. It does not tell the exact amount of finished butter which is made from 100 pounds of milk. This is because butter contains a few other things in addition to pure butter-fat. Finished and salted butter weighs on an average about one sixth more than the fat shown by the tester. Hence to get the exact amount of butter in every 100 pounds of milk, you will have to add one sixth to the record shown by the tester. Suppose, for example, you took one sample from 600 pounds of milk and that your test showed 4 per cent of fat in every 100 pounds of milk. Then, as you had 600 pounds of milk, you would have 24 pounds of butter-fat. This fat, after it has been salted and after it has absorbed moisture as butter does, will gain one sixth in weight. As one sixth of 24 is 4, this new 4 pounds must be added to the weight of the butter-fat. Hence the 600 pounds of milk would produce about 28 pounds of butter.

Tuesday, September 15, 2015

After this first turning is finished

After this first turning is finished

After this first turning is finished



After this first turning is finished, pour enough hot water into each test-bottle to cause the fat to rise to the neck of the bottle. Re-cover the machine and turn for one minute. Again add hot water to each bottle until all the fat rises into the neck of the bottle and again turn one minute.

There remains now only the reading of the record. On the neck of each bottle there are marks to measure the amount of fat. If the fat inside the tube reaches only from the lowest mark to the second mark, then there is only one per cent of fat in this cow's milk. This means that the owner of the cow gets only one pound of butter-fat from each hundred pounds of her milk. Such a cow would not be at all profitable to a butter-seller. If the fat in another test-bottle reaches from the lowest mark to the fourth mark, then you put in your record-book that this cow's milk contains four per cent of butter-fat. This record shows that the second cow's milk yields four pounds of fat to every hundred pounds of milk. This cow is three times more valuable to a butter-maker than the first cow. In the same way add one more per cent for each higher mark reached by the fat. Four and one-half per cent is a good record for a cow to make. Some cows yield as high as five or six per cent but they do not generally keep up this record all the year.



Fig. 274. Babcock Tester and How To Use It

Monday, September 14, 2015

Treat all the samples precisely as you did the first

Treat all the samples precisely as you did the first

Treat all the samples precisely as you did the first



Now fill the other bottles in the same way with samples drawn from different cows. Treat all the samples precisely as you did the first. Do not forget to put on each sample the name of the cow giving the milk and on each test-bottle a number corresponding to the name of the cow.

You are now ready to put the test-bottles in the sockets of the machine. Arrange the bottles in the sockets so that the whirling frame of the machine will be balanced. Fit the cover on the machine and turn the handle slowly. Gradually gain in speed until the machine is whirled rapidly. Continue the turning for about seven minutes at the speed stated in the book of directions.

Sunday, September 13, 2015

The next step is to add a strong

The next step is to add a strong

The next step is to add a strong



The next step is to add a strong, biting acid known as sulphuric acid to the test-bottle into which you have just put the milk. A glass marked to show just how much acid to use also comes with the machine. Fill this glass measure to the mark. Then pour the acid carefully into the test-bottle. Be sure not to drop any of the acid on your hands or your clothes. As the acid is heavier than the milk, it will sink to the bottom of the bottle. With a gentle whirling motion, shake the bottle until the two fluids are thoroughly mixed. The mixture will turn a dark brown and become very warm.

Saturday, September 12, 2015

The operation of the machine is very simple

The operation of the machine is very simple

The operation of the machine is very simple



The operation of the machine is very simple. Suppose that the members of the class studying this book have been asked to take a Babcock machine and test the milk of a small herd of cows. They can readily do so by following these directions:

While the milk is still warm from the first cow to be tested, mix it thoroughly by pouring it at least four times from one vessel to another. A few ounces of this mixed milk is then taken for a sample, and carefully marked with the name of the cow. A number is also put on the sample, and both the cow's name and the number entered in a notebook. A small glass instrument, called a pipette, comes with each machine. Put one end of the pipette into the milk sample and the other end into the mouth. Suck milk into the pipette until the milk comes up to the mark on the side of the pipette. As soon as the mark is reached, withdraw the pipette from the mouth and quickly press the forefinger on the mouth end. The pressure of the finger will keep the milk from running out. Then put the lower end of the pipette into one of the small long-necked bottles of the machine, and, lifting the finger, allow the milk to flow gently into the bottle. Expel all the milk by blowing through the pipette.

Friday, September 11, 2015

In 1890 Dr S M

In 1890 Dr S M

In 1890 Dr S M



In 1890 Dr. S. M. Babcock of the Wisconsin Experiment Station invented a wonderful little machine that quickly and cheaply measures the fat in milk. Few machines are more useful. So desirous was Dr. Babcock of helping the farmers that he would not add to the cost of his machine by taking out a patent on his invention. His only reward has been the fame won by the invention of the machine, which bears his name. This most useful tester is now made in various sizes so that every handler of milk may buy one suited to his needs and do his own testing at very little cost.

Thursday, September 10, 2015

The Babcock Milk-tester

The Babcock Milk-tester

The Babcock Milk-tester


It is not sufficient for a farmer or a dairyman to know how much milk each of his cows yields. He should also know how rich the milk is in butter-fat. Wide-awake makers of butter and cheese now buy milk, not by the pound or by the gallon, but by the amount of butter-fat contained in each pound or gallon of milk. A gallon of milk containing four and a half per cent of fat will consequently be worth more than a gallon containing only three per cent of fat. So it may happen that a cow giving only two gallons of milk may pay a butter-maker more than a cow giving three gallons of milk. Of course it is easy to weigh or measure the quantity of milk given by a cow, and most milkers keep this record; but until recent years there was no way to find out the amount of fat in a cow's milk except by a slow and costly chemical test. Dairymen could only guess at the richness of milk.

Wednesday, September 9, 2015

The work of the germ in the dairy is not

The work of the germ in the dairy is not

The work of the germ in the dairy is not



The work of the germ in the dairy is not, however, confined to souring the milk. Certain kinds of germs give to the different sorts of cheeses their marked flavors and to butter its flavor. If the right germ is present, cheese or butter gets a proper flavor. Sometimes undesirable germs gain entrance and give flavors that we do not like. Such germs produce cheese or butter diseases. "Bitter butter" is one of these diseases. To keep out all unpleasant meddlers, thoroughly cleanse and scald every utensil.

EXERCISE

What causes milk to sour? Why do unclean utensils affect the milk? How should milk be cared for to prevent its souring? Prepare two samples, one carefully, the other carelessly. Place them side by side. Which keeps longer? Why?

Tuesday, September 8, 2015

The first few streams from each teat should be thrown away

The first few streams from each teat should be thrown away

The first few streams from each teat should be thrown away



The first few streams from each teat should be thrown away, because the teat at its mouth is filled with milk which, having been exposed to the air, is full of germs, and will do much toward souring the other milk in the pail. Barely a gill will be lost by throwing the first drawings away, and this of the poorest milk too. The increase in the keeping quality of the milk will much more than repay the small loss. If these precautions are taken, the milk will keep several hours or even several days longer than milk carelessly handled. By taking these steps to prevent germs from falling into the milk, a can of milk was once kept sweet for thirty-one days.

Monday, September 7, 2015

In addition to this thorough cleansing with hot water

In addition to this thorough cleansing with hot water

In addition to this thorough cleansing with hot water



In addition to this thorough cleansing with hot water, we should be careful never to stir up the dust of the barn just before milking. Such dusty work as pitching hay or stover or arranging bedding should be done either after or long before milking-time, for more germs fall into the milk if the air be full of dust.

To further avoid germs the milker should wear clean overalls, should have clean hands, and, above all, should never wet his hands with milk. This last habit, in addition to being filthy, lessens the keeping power of the milk. The milker should also moisten the parts of the cow which are nearest him, so that dust from the cow's sides may not fall into the milker's pail. For greater cleanliness and safety many milkmen curry their cows.